The
greatest institution in the entire world is the Catholic Church. Her greatness
often leads so many people to develop interest in her. Once you talk about the
Church, you are invariably talking about the Papacy, that is, the system of government
of the Catholic Church with Pope as the head. But who on this earth can,
with his finite brain, comprehend exhaustively the phenomena of the Pope and of
the church. Many claims are made, many points are raised, many objections
are put forward but the question about the papacy remains not adequately
answered. This piece wishes to lend its voice to the awe-inspiring
institution of the papacy, taking cognisance of its foundation, structure,
problems, achievements and shortcomings; and contemporary papacy as embodied in
the Popes of 20th/21st centuries.
greatest institution in the entire world is the Catholic Church. Her greatness
often leads so many people to develop interest in her. Once you talk about the
Church, you are invariably talking about the Papacy, that is, the system of government
of the Catholic Church with Pope as the head. But who on this earth can,
with his finite brain, comprehend exhaustively the phenomena of the Pope and of
the church. Many claims are made, many points are raised, many objections
are put forward but the question about the papacy remains not adequately
answered. This piece wishes to lend its voice to the awe-inspiring
institution of the papacy, taking cognisance of its foundation, structure,
problems, achievements and shortcomings; and contemporary papacy as embodied in
the Popes of 20th/21st centuries.
These are the current questions, following
the notice of resignation by Pope Benedict XVI. Very soon, the issue of who
succeeds the pope will occupy the front burner and many questions will be asked
about the papacy.
Fundation of Papacy
Catholics
believe that Jesus Christ is the invisible head of their Church, which,
according to them, He founded. Christ, the logic goes forth, by the
nature of His mission on earth could not stay ad infinitum and, therefore,
founded an authority to represent Him on earth. Thus Christ, some
believe, established the office of the Pope when He said to Simon, who was also
called Peter, or the Rock. “You are Peter, and upon this rock I will
build my Church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it”
(Mt. 16:18). Later in the gospel of John (Jn.21:15-17), Christ brought out
Peter’s position more vividly. Having called him three times, Christ gave
him the jurisdiction of a supreme shepherd and ruler over the whole flock, thus
making him the first Pope. Did Peter justify this position?
believe that Jesus Christ is the invisible head of their Church, which,
according to them, He founded. Christ, the logic goes forth, by the
nature of His mission on earth could not stay ad infinitum and, therefore,
founded an authority to represent Him on earth. Thus Christ, some
believe, established the office of the Pope when He said to Simon, who was also
called Peter, or the Rock. “You are Peter, and upon this rock I will
build my Church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it”
(Mt. 16:18). Later in the gospel of John (Jn.21:15-17), Christ brought out
Peter’s position more vividly. Having called him three times, Christ gave
him the jurisdiction of a supreme shepherd and ruler over the whole flock, thus
making him the first Pope. Did Peter justify this position?
How
far St. Peter carried on the flock of Christ could be seen in his
activities. He was always at the head of the apostles and named first
whenever the names of the twelve were mentioned. During the Council of
Jerusalem (A.D.47), which deliberated on the propriety or otherwise of
admitting the Gentiles into the Church, Peter presided. When St. Mathias
was chosen to replace Judas as an apostle, Peter was the spokesman.
During the Pentecost, it was Peter that addressed the men of Judea and all who
dwelt in Jerusalem on behalf of the apostles. During the condemnation of
Ananias and Sapphira, Peter was at the forefront.
far St. Peter carried on the flock of Christ could be seen in his
activities. He was always at the head of the apostles and named first
whenever the names of the twelve were mentioned. During the Council of
Jerusalem (A.D.47), which deliberated on the propriety or otherwise of
admitting the Gentiles into the Church, Peter presided. When St. Mathias
was chosen to replace Judas as an apostle, Peter was the spokesman.
During the Pentecost, it was Peter that addressed the men of Judea and all who
dwelt in Jerusalem on behalf of the apostles. During the condemnation of
Ananias and Sapphira, Peter was at the forefront.
By
all indications, Peter’s leadership was accepted by the early Church.
Faithful to Peter as the first Pope, the early Church continued to grow amidst
many obstacles that even surpassed what the Church is experiencing today.
all indications, Peter’s leadership was accepted by the early Church.
Faithful to Peter as the first Pope, the early Church continued to grow amidst
many obstacles that even surpassed what the Church is experiencing today.
The
nascent Church, existing first in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor and Greece,
as described in Acts of the Apostles, soon found its focal point in the
capital of the Roman Empire, a centre, which has remained to this day.
The testimony of Peter’s residence in Rome is so abundant that renowned pagan
and protestant historian, Whiston, attest to that. He says the evidence
“is so clear to Christians antiquity that it is a shame for any protestant to
confess that any protestant ever denied it.”
nascent Church, existing first in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor and Greece,
as described in Acts of the Apostles, soon found its focal point in the
capital of the Roman Empire, a centre, which has remained to this day.
The testimony of Peter’s residence in Rome is so abundant that renowned pagan
and protestant historian, Whiston, attest to that. He says the evidence
“is so clear to Christians antiquity that it is a shame for any protestant to
confess that any protestant ever denied it.”
Prior
to his pontificate at Rome from A.D. 42-A.D. 67, Peter was the first Bishop of
Antioch in Syria. He was martyred in Rome with St. Paul during the reign
of Emperor Nero. According to tradition, Peter was buried under what
later became the site of St. Peter’s Church in Vatican City.
to his pontificate at Rome from A.D. 42-A.D. 67, Peter was the first Bishop of
Antioch in Syria. He was martyred in Rome with St. Paul during the reign
of Emperor Nero. According to tradition, Peter was buried under what
later became the site of St. Peter’s Church in Vatican City.
It is
almost two thousand years since Christ ascended to heaven. Thus the
Catholic Church and the Papacy have existed for almost 2000 years. During
these times, other institutions that started with the Papacy have all
fallen. This, to some, is an indication and indeed the fulfillment of
Christ’s word that He would be with the Church till the end of the time.
This divine assistance has made the Church and the Papacy to rise above the
human weaknesses of her members and to live and bury those organisations and
institutions that once threatened her.
almost two thousand years since Christ ascended to heaven. Thus the
Catholic Church and the Papacy have existed for almost 2000 years. During
these times, other institutions that started with the Papacy have all
fallen. This, to some, is an indication and indeed the fulfillment of
Christ’s word that He would be with the Church till the end of the time.
This divine assistance has made the Church and the Papacy to rise above the
human weaknesses of her members and to live and bury those organisations and
institutions that once threatened her.
This
long existence of the Papacy (2, 000 years) should and have produced many
remarkable innovations and modifications. Many titles are now used for the
Pope; many offices, congregations and tribunals have been created to help the
Pope in administering the Church; dogmas are continuously being defined (not
invested) to meet the changing world; more dignified way of electing the Pope
has been adopted after many centuries of trials and errors; so many
advancements that were St. Peter to come back to the world today, he would
scarcely recognise the Papacy. If, in a sudden cataclysmic destruction of
all institutions in the world, mankind were advised to name one institution for
preservation, they would choose the Papacy. When I see it, I imagine I
see grandeur in person. As we marvel at this marvelous institution, let
us see its structure and operation.
long existence of the Papacy (2, 000 years) should and have produced many
remarkable innovations and modifications. Many titles are now used for the
Pope; many offices, congregations and tribunals have been created to help the
Pope in administering the Church; dogmas are continuously being defined (not
invested) to meet the changing world; more dignified way of electing the Pope
has been adopted after many centuries of trials and errors; so many
advancements that were St. Peter to come back to the world today, he would
scarcely recognise the Papacy. If, in a sudden cataclysmic destruction of
all institutions in the world, mankind were advised to name one institution for
preservation, they would choose the Papacy. When I see it, I imagine I
see grandeur in person. As we marvel at this marvelous institution, let
us see its structure and operation.
The structure and operation of the papacy
We
have to “dismantle” the Papacy before we can comprehend its structure. This
cannot be done without the knowledge of the Vatican City. During the
struggle for unification of Italy, from 1848 to 1870, all Papal states were
forcefully taken from the Church by the state. Having no standing army,
the Pope was helpless. As a protest, Pope Pius IX (1792 – 1878) and three
of his successors, in the next 60 years, made themselves voluntary prisoners of
the Vatican.
have to “dismantle” the Papacy before we can comprehend its structure. This
cannot be done without the knowledge of the Vatican City. During the
struggle for unification of Italy, from 1848 to 1870, all Papal states were
forcefully taken from the Church by the state. Having no standing army,
the Pope was helpless. As a protest, Pope Pius IX (1792 – 1878) and three
of his successors, in the next 60 years, made themselves voluntary prisoners of
the Vatican.
In
1929, Pope Pius XI (1857 – 1939) and the Italian government, led by Benito
Mussolini, settled the 60-year-old dispute between the Church and the state
with two historic documents – The Lateran Treaty and The Concordant. The
former gave the Pope full sovereignty over Vatican City while the later dealt
with relations between the Vatican and Italy. These documents, having been
signed, Pope Pius XI emerged from the Vatican and entered St. Peter’s Square in
a huge procession witnessed by about 250,000 persons. His appearance
signaled the triumph of the Church.
1929, Pope Pius XI (1857 – 1939) and the Italian government, led by Benito
Mussolini, settled the 60-year-old dispute between the Church and the state
with two historic documents – The Lateran Treaty and The Concordant. The
former gave the Pope full sovereignty over Vatican City while the later dealt
with relations between the Vatican and Italy. These documents, having been
signed, Pope Pius XI emerged from the Vatican and entered St. Peter’s Square in
a huge procession witnessed by about 250,000 persons. His appearance
signaled the triumph of the Church.
Justifying
its sovereignty, Vatican City has its own Pope’s yellow and white banner as the
official state flag, automatic licence plates, postage stamps and coins.
It maintains its own public works: mail and telephone systems, water supply and
lighting and street-cleaning services. Vatican has its own bank, a large
printing plant, and a rarely occupied jail (use for something else now).
Vatican does not have an army or navy capable of fighting a war. But it
does have its own “Armed Forces”. The most famous are the Swiss Guards,
who protect the Pope and serve as sentries. Other armed forces include
the Noble Guards (body guards and escorts of the Pope); the Palatine Guard (the
Pope’s militia) and the Pontifical Gendarmerie (the Pope’s Police Force).
its sovereignty, Vatican City has its own Pope’s yellow and white banner as the
official state flag, automatic licence plates, postage stamps and coins.
It maintains its own public works: mail and telephone systems, water supply and
lighting and street-cleaning services. Vatican has its own bank, a large
printing plant, and a rarely occupied jail (use for something else now).
Vatican does not have an army or navy capable of fighting a war. But it
does have its own “Armed Forces”. The most famous are the Swiss Guards,
who protect the Pope and serve as sentries. Other armed forces include
the Noble Guards (body guards and escorts of the Pope); the Palatine Guard (the
Pope’s militia) and the Pontifical Gendarmerie (the Pope’s Police Force).
In
addition to L’osservatore Romano, the most influential Vatican daily newspaper;
it also publishes Osservatore della Domenica, a weekly publication; and the
Acta Apostolican Sedis, which prints official Church documents. The
Vatican Radio transmits Papal message in more than 40 languages, including
Latin.
addition to L’osservatore Romano, the most influential Vatican daily newspaper;
it also publishes Osservatore della Domenica, a weekly publication; and the
Acta Apostolican Sedis, which prints official Church documents. The
Vatican Radio transmits Papal message in more than 40 languages, including
Latin.
Most
importantly, the Pope sends and receives diplomats from other countries.
Papal Ambassadors and Envoys are called Legates. Legates of high position
are called Nuncios and those of lesser positions Internuncios. All
Bishops submit to supervision of their affairs by Legates of the Pope.
The Pope’s seat of authority is called the Apostolic See or the Holy See.
importantly, the Pope sends and receives diplomats from other countries.
Papal Ambassadors and Envoys are called Legates. Legates of high position
are called Nuncios and those of lesser positions Internuncios. All
Bishops submit to supervision of their affairs by Legates of the Pope.
The Pope’s seat of authority is called the Apostolic See or the Holy See.
Pope’s
functions are mostly spiritual. Whenever he speaks Ex Cathedra, that is,
in his position as the head of the Church on matters, concerning morals and
faith, he is said to be infallible. Besides, he is as gullible as the man
next door. The Pope has the sole function of beatifying and canonising
saints. He appoints and deposes bishops; he creates dioceses and approves
new religious orders. Whenever the Pope wishes, he may call an ecumenical
council or a general conference of the Church to help him decide on Church
affairs.
functions are mostly spiritual. Whenever he speaks Ex Cathedra, that is,
in his position as the head of the Church on matters, concerning morals and
faith, he is said to be infallible. Besides, he is as gullible as the man
next door. The Pope has the sole function of beatifying and canonising
saints. He appoints and deposes bishops; he creates dioceses and approves
new religious orders. Whenever the Pope wishes, he may call an ecumenical
council or a general conference of the Church to help him decide on Church
affairs.
In
carrying out his temporal and spiritual functions, the Pope is aided by
numerous Congregations, Tribunals, and Offices in Rome. All these make up
the Curia. The Congregations have executive authority; the Tribunals
exercise judicial powers; and Offices perform ministerial duties. The
heads of most of these units have the rank of Cardinal.
carrying out his temporal and spiritual functions, the Pope is aided by
numerous Congregations, Tribunals, and Offices in Rome. All these make up
the Curia. The Congregations have executive authority; the Tribunals
exercise judicial powers; and Offices perform ministerial duties. The
heads of most of these units have the rank of Cardinal.
In
the Roman Curia, many offices are distinguished; some of them are the Apostolic
Chancery – this office sends Papal documents to dioceses throughout the world;
The Apostolic Datary – the office examines candidates for Papal benefices; The
Apostolic Camera – this office is concerned with temporal goods and rights of
the Holy See; The Secretariat of State – this office handles special matters,
including the relationship of Holy see and civil governments; and the
Secretariat of Briefs and Latin Letters – this office prepares letters to civil
rulers and puts Papal documents into its official Latin form.
the Roman Curia, many offices are distinguished; some of them are the Apostolic
Chancery – this office sends Papal documents to dioceses throughout the world;
The Apostolic Datary – the office examines candidates for Papal benefices; The
Apostolic Camera – this office is concerned with temporal goods and rights of
the Holy See; The Secretariat of State – this office handles special matters,
including the relationship of Holy see and civil governments; and the
Secretariat of Briefs and Latin Letters – this office prepares letters to civil
rulers and puts Papal documents into its official Latin form.
There
are many titles with which the Pope is known. All of these titles point
out to his position as the Primus inter pares among other bishops. His
full titles are legion: Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor
of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church,
Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the
Roman Province and Sovereign of the State of Vatican City. He is
addressed as “Your Holiness” or “The Holy Father” but the Pope speaks of
himself in official documents as “Servant of the Servants of God.”
(Servus servorum Dei).
are many titles with which the Pope is known. All of these titles point
out to his position as the Primus inter pares among other bishops. His
full titles are legion: Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor
of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church,
Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the
Roman Province and Sovereign of the State of Vatican City. He is
addressed as “Your Holiness” or “The Holy Father” but the Pope speaks of
himself in official documents as “Servant of the Servants of God.”
(Servus servorum Dei).
The
clothes of the Pope are similar to those of his brother bishops in style and
colour, mostly white. His shoes are low, open and red in colour with
cross on the front of each. His pallium, which is a band of wool
embroidered with crosses, shows his rank as an archbishop. Pope’s jewels
include a pontifical ring, which is known as the fisherman’s ring.
clothes of the Pope are similar to those of his brother bishops in style and
colour, mostly white. His shoes are low, open and red in colour with
cross on the front of each. His pallium, which is a band of wool
embroidered with crosses, shows his rank as an archbishop. Pope’s jewels
include a pontifical ring, which is known as the fisherman’s ring.
Very
important in the lives of Popes is the Sacred College, also called the College
of Cardinals. This body acts as advisers to the Pope. The Pope, in
the spirit of apostleship, asks for their advice whenever needed. He
meets with them officially in the Consistories. Consistories could be secret,
semi-secret or public.
important in the lives of Popes is the Sacred College, also called the College
of Cardinals. This body acts as advisers to the Pope. The Pope, in
the spirit of apostleship, asks for their advice whenever needed. He
meets with them officially in the Consistories. Consistories could be secret,
semi-secret or public.
In
secret Consistories, the Pope meets with his Cardinals. It is there that
new Cardinals are named. Pope gives the new Cardinals their sapphire
rings as a symbol of their offices. If a Cardinal comes from a far
country, the Pope assigns him an honorary position as the head of a diocese in
Italy. At secret Consistories, the Pope appoints Cardinal Camerlengo,
i.e. Chancellor of the Catholic Church. In semi-public Consistories, the
Pope, Cardinals and Bishops meet. This Consistory discusses candidates
for beatification and canonisation. In public Consistory, church
officials and dignitaries could be invited.
secret Consistories, the Pope meets with his Cardinals. It is there that
new Cardinals are named. Pope gives the new Cardinals their sapphire
rings as a symbol of their offices. If a Cardinal comes from a far
country, the Pope assigns him an honorary position as the head of a diocese in
Italy. At secret Consistories, the Pope appoints Cardinal Camerlengo,
i.e. Chancellor of the Catholic Church. In semi-public Consistories, the
Pope, Cardinals and Bishops meet. This Consistory discusses candidates
for beatification and canonisation. In public Consistory, church
officials and dignitaries could be invited.
The
major function of the College of Cardinals is the election of a new Pope.
When a Pope dies, a member of the college must verify his death. He
touches the forehead of the Pope thrice with a silver mallet and calls him by
his baptismal name. He then announces that “the Pope is truly dead”. In
the interim, the Sacred College takes over his functions. Though we have
had Popes that resigned in the past, it was essentially due to one problem or
another, including the era of anti Popes. With the resignation of the present
Pope, it is imperative that before the date it will take effect, he would have
named what the formula will be.
major function of the College of Cardinals is the election of a new Pope.
When a Pope dies, a member of the college must verify his death. He
touches the forehead of the Pope thrice with a silver mallet and calls him by
his baptismal name. He then announces that “the Pope is truly dead”. In
the interim, the Sacred College takes over his functions. Though we have
had Popes that resigned in the past, it was essentially due to one problem or
another, including the era of anti Popes. With the resignation of the present
Pope, it is imperative that before the date it will take effect, he would have
named what the formula will be.
During
the election of a new Pope, the College of Cardinals is known as “The
Conclave”. While in the conclave, the Cardinals severe any relationship
with the outside world. On the day of the election, mass of the Holy
Ghost is celebrated for guidance in decision. The actual voting takes
place in the Sistine chapel (erected in the palace of the Vatican by Pope
Sixtus IV in 1473).
the election of a new Pope, the College of Cardinals is known as “The
Conclave”. While in the conclave, the Cardinals severe any relationship
with the outside world. On the day of the election, mass of the Holy
Ghost is celebrated for guidance in decision. The actual voting takes
place in the Sistine chapel (erected in the palace of the Vatican by Pope
Sixtus IV in 1473).
The
Conclave begins between the 15th and 18th day after the death of the
Pope. After voting, if a new Pope is not elected, the scrutinies (ballots)
are burnt with a mixture of straw) to produce black smoke. When
eventually a Pope is elected, the straw is burnt alone to produce white
smoke. Then, outsiders will shout “Viva il papa” (“Long live the
Pope”). The Cardinals will then pay their first homage to the
Pope-elect. The senior Cardinal deacon will then step out on the balcony
of St. Peter’s Church and announces to the people in Latin, Habemus Papam (“We
have a Pope”). The Pope makes his first appearance and gives his blessing,
“Urbi et Orbi” (to the City and to the World).
Conclave begins between the 15th and 18th day after the death of the
Pope. After voting, if a new Pope is not elected, the scrutinies (ballots)
are burnt with a mixture of straw) to produce black smoke. When
eventually a Pope is elected, the straw is burnt alone to produce white
smoke. Then, outsiders will shout “Viva il papa” (“Long live the
Pope”). The Cardinals will then pay their first homage to the
Pope-elect. The senior Cardinal deacon will then step out on the balcony
of St. Peter’s Church and announces to the people in Latin, Habemus Papam (“We
have a Pope”). The Pope makes his first appearance and gives his blessing,
“Urbi et Orbi” (to the City and to the World).
The
Pope-elect chooses a day and a place for his installation – they have often
chosen St. Peter’s Church. On that day, the Pope is carried in a portable
throne in a procession from the Vatican to Saint Peter. After the mass, a
three-tiered crown is placed on the Pope’s head. He then gives his
blessing. The cardinals will pay a second homage.
Pope-elect chooses a day and a place for his installation – they have often
chosen St. Peter’s Church. On that day, the Pope is carried in a portable
throne in a procession from the Vatican to Saint Peter. After the mass, a
three-tiered crown is placed on the Pope’s head. He then gives his
blessing. The cardinals will pay a second homage.
However,
in 1978, Pope Paul I eliminated many of this traditional ceremonies. He
walked in the procession and chose to have a pallium placed over his shoulders,
symbolising his pastoral responsibilities as the head of the Church.
Later, Pope John Paul II followed this Pauline example.
in 1978, Pope Paul I eliminated many of this traditional ceremonies. He
walked in the procession and chose to have a pallium placed over his shoulders,
symbolising his pastoral responsibilities as the head of the Church.
Later, Pope John Paul II followed this Pauline example.
The
foregoing represents the operation of the papacy, so terribly organised.
In fact, if art were the organisation of government, the Papacy is the most
imposing masterpiece in history. This does not mean that the papacy is
trouble-free. It has its own plenty share of troubles amidst many
achievements.
foregoing represents the operation of the papacy, so terribly organised.
In fact, if art were the organisation of government, the Papacy is the most
imposing masterpiece in history. This does not mean that the papacy is
trouble-free. It has its own plenty share of troubles amidst many
achievements.
Troubles
and achievements
and achievements
It is
said, often with some truth, the beginning of anything is usually difficult,
thus the early Church and Popes faced monumental obstacles. In these
trials, they were mettlesome enough. Almost all of them faced the
opposition against the Church with heroic faith.
said, often with some truth, the beginning of anything is usually difficult,
thus the early Church and Popes faced monumental obstacles. In these
trials, they were mettlesome enough. Almost all of them faced the
opposition against the Church with heroic faith.
Since
Roman Emperors were pagans, they tried to exterminate the nascent Christianity
at all cost. It was so intense that in A.D. 67, Emperor Nero killed St.
Peter and St. Paul. When Rome burnt (A.D. 64 – 65), Nero accused and
persecuted Christians. In A.D. 96, Emperor Domitan tried to surpass the
records of Nero by his brutal killing of Christians. Emperor Diocletian in A.D.
303, February 23, published a general edict, ordering the destruction of
Christian Churches and writings and reduced Christians to slave status.
The list of hostility, if one wishes, could go on. ad-infinitum
Roman Emperors were pagans, they tried to exterminate the nascent Christianity
at all cost. It was so intense that in A.D. 67, Emperor Nero killed St.
Peter and St. Paul. When Rome burnt (A.D. 64 – 65), Nero accused and
persecuted Christians. In A.D. 96, Emperor Domitan tried to surpass the
records of Nero by his brutal killing of Christians. Emperor Diocletian in A.D.
303, February 23, published a general edict, ordering the destruction of
Christian Churches and writings and reduced Christians to slave status.
The list of hostility, if one wishes, could go on. ad-infinitum
A
turning point was, however, recorded in A.D. 314. With the help of his
mother, St. Helena, Pope Sylvester (314-325) converted Constantine to
Christianity. As a postscript, he initiated the transformation of pagan
Rome into a Christian state. Constantine stopped the crucifixion and breaking
of leg in Roman Empire (A.D. 315) and declined to celebrate the Ludi Saeculares
at Rome because of their pegan association (A.D. 314). He exempted the
clergy of Roman Empire from taxation (A.D. 315) and recognised the jurisdiction
of ecclesiastical courts (A.D. 318). Constantine forbade magic (A.D. 320) and
heretical gatherings and divorce (A.D. 331).
turning point was, however, recorded in A.D. 314. With the help of his
mother, St. Helena, Pope Sylvester (314-325) converted Constantine to
Christianity. As a postscript, he initiated the transformation of pagan
Rome into a Christian state. Constantine stopped the crucifixion and breaking
of leg in Roman Empire (A.D. 315) and declined to celebrate the Ludi Saeculares
at Rome because of their pegan association (A.D. 314). He exempted the
clergy of Roman Empire from taxation (A.D. 315) and recognised the jurisdiction
of ecclesiastical courts (A.D. 318). Constantine forbade magic (A.D. 320) and
heretical gatherings and divorce (A.D. 331).
The
culminating act of his conversion was the building of the first St. Peter’s
Basilica above the crypt (tomb) of St. Peter in 325. The modern St.
Peter’s Basilica was, however, started in 1506 by Pope Julius II and dedicated
in 1626 by Pope Urban VIII. Pope Alexander VII (1655 – 1667) was to erect
the magnificent colonnade of the plaza at St. Peter.
culminating act of his conversion was the building of the first St. Peter’s
Basilica above the crypt (tomb) of St. Peter in 325. The modern St.
Peter’s Basilica was, however, started in 1506 by Pope Julius II and dedicated
in 1626 by Pope Urban VIII. Pope Alexander VII (1655 – 1667) was to erect
the magnificent colonnade of the plaza at St. Peter.
Another
unpleasant task of ecclesiastical organisation under the Popes was to prevent a
fragmentation of the Church through the multiplication of heresies, i.e.
doctrines contrary to the conciliar definitions of the Church creed.
These heresies almost always rose in an East that had inherited the Greek
passion for defining the infinite. It has always been resolved through
different Councils convoked to examine specific heresies otherwise known as
General or Ecumenical Councils. The first council was that of Jerusalem
chaired by the first Pope, St. Peter.
unpleasant task of ecclesiastical organisation under the Popes was to prevent a
fragmentation of the Church through the multiplication of heresies, i.e.
doctrines contrary to the conciliar definitions of the Church creed.
These heresies almost always rose in an East that had inherited the Greek
passion for defining the infinite. It has always been resolved through
different Councils convoked to examine specific heresies otherwise known as
General or Ecumenical Councils. The first council was that of Jerusalem
chaired by the first Pope, St. Peter.
Then
in A.D. 318, Arius, a Libyan Priest, startled the whole world by his denial of
the Holy Trinity. Christians hold Christ to be so identical in being with
God (homoousious); Arius considered Him only similar in being (homoiousis). In
A.D. 321, Arius was excommunicated. With the help of Constantine,
Eusebius of Caesarea and St. Athanasius (later Bishop of Alexandria) and the
support of Pope Sylvester I, the Nicene Council was called. The Council
re-affirmed the Trinity and gave us the Nicene Creed, which summarises the
chief articles of the Christian faith.
in A.D. 318, Arius, a Libyan Priest, startled the whole world by his denial of
the Holy Trinity. Christians hold Christ to be so identical in being with
God (homoousious); Arius considered Him only similar in being (homoiousis). In
A.D. 321, Arius was excommunicated. With the help of Constantine,
Eusebius of Caesarea and St. Athanasius (later Bishop of Alexandria) and the
support of Pope Sylvester I, the Nicene Council was called. The Council
re-affirmed the Trinity and gave us the Nicene Creed, which summarises the
chief articles of the Christian faith.
At
this point, Nestorious, Bishop of Contantinople, entered the heretic
scene. According to the church, Christ was God, and Mary was “Theotokos”,
God-bearing, the mother of God. Nestorius thought the term too strong.
Mary, he said, was the mother only of the human, not of the divine, nature of
Christ.
this point, Nestorious, Bishop of Contantinople, entered the heretic
scene. According to the church, Christ was God, and Mary was “Theotokos”,
God-bearing, the mother of God. Nestorius thought the term too strong.
Mary, he said, was the mother only of the human, not of the divine, nature of
Christ.
In
429, St Cyril, Archbishop of Alexandria, repudiated Nestorius. Pope
Celestine I (422 – 432), stirred by a letter from Cyril, called a Council at
Rome (A.D. 430). The Council demanded Nestorius to retract; he refused.
Finally the Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431) re-affirmed that Mary was the mother
of the incarnate Logos or word of God, containing both the divine and the human
nature of Christ. The same Pope Celestine I sent St. Patrick to convert
Ireland to Christianity, a task he masterfully accomplished.
429, St Cyril, Archbishop of Alexandria, repudiated Nestorius. Pope
Celestine I (422 – 432), stirred by a letter from Cyril, called a Council at
Rome (A.D. 430). The Council demanded Nestorius to retract; he refused.
Finally the Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431) re-affirmed that Mary was the mother
of the incarnate Logos or word of God, containing both the divine and the human
nature of Christ. The same Pope Celestine I sent St. Patrick to convert
Ireland to Christianity, a task he masterfully accomplished.
Eutyches,
head of a Monastery near Constantinople, announced the last great heresy of
this turbulent period and the most momentous in result. In Christ, said
Eutychus, there were not two natures, human and divine; there was only the
divine. The Council of Chalcedom (451), under Pope Leo I, condemned this
“monophysite” heresy and reaffirmed the double nature of Christ.
head of a Monastery near Constantinople, announced the last great heresy of
this turbulent period and the most momentous in result. In Christ, said
Eutychus, there were not two natures, human and divine; there was only the
divine. The Council of Chalcedom (451), under Pope Leo I, condemned this
“monophysite” heresy and reaffirmed the double nature of Christ.
In
between the above heresies, many other heresies had at a point threatened the
Church. There was the Albigensian heresy. This heresy derived its
name from the city of Albi; they rejected the Holy Trinity and believed that
Christ was not the son of God but an archangel, who came to earth as an
apparition or illusion. Pope Innocent III fought them to a standstill in
1208.
between the above heresies, many other heresies had at a point threatened the
Church. There was the Albigensian heresy. This heresy derived its
name from the city of Albi; they rejected the Holy Trinity and believed that
Christ was not the son of God but an archangel, who came to earth as an
apparition or illusion. Pope Innocent III fought them to a standstill in
1208.
In
787, Pope Adrian I condemned the heresy of Adoptionism, whose exponents held
that Christ, as man, was the adopted but not the natural Son of God. The
Pope, in 787, presided through his delegates over the second Council of Nicene,
which condemned Adoptionism and Inconoclasm.
787, Pope Adrian I condemned the heresy of Adoptionism, whose exponents held
that Christ, as man, was the adopted but not the natural Son of God. The
Pope, in 787, presided through his delegates over the second Council of Nicene,
which condemned Adoptionism and Inconoclasm.
We
cannot point out all the heresies that agitated the Church in her
history. In addition to those mentioned, we have the Apollinarians,
Saballians, Manichism, Paulinians, Bogomiles, Pelagianism, Massalians,
Priscillinists and heresies propagated by current commercial churches.
Added to these heresies, there were additional problems created by differences
between the Latin Church and the Eastern Church.
cannot point out all the heresies that agitated the Church in her
history. In addition to those mentioned, we have the Apollinarians,
Saballians, Manichism, Paulinians, Bogomiles, Pelagianism, Massalians,
Priscillinists and heresies propagated by current commercial churches.
Added to these heresies, there were additional problems created by differences
between the Latin Church and the Eastern Church.
The
Church, despite its many problems and heretics, attacking her was united until
after the first 800 years when a major schism began to separate the Church at
Rome and the Church at Constantinpole, now at Istabul. The causes of this
schism were many and its result momentous.
Church, despite its many problems and heretics, attacking her was united until
after the first 800 years when a major schism began to separate the Church at
Rome and the Church at Constantinpole, now at Istabul. The causes of this
schism were many and its result momentous.
First
there was communication problem created by differences in language, liturgy and
doctrines. Greek Liturgy, ecclesiastical vestments, vessels and ornaments
were more complex, ornate and artistically wrought than those of the West; the
Greek cross had equal arms; the Greeks prayed standing, the Latin kneeling; the
Greek baptised by immersion, the Latin by aspersion and/or immersion; marriage
was forbidden to Latin priests but permitted to Greek priests; Latin priests
shaved, Greek priests had contemplative beards. These differences and many
other disagreements led to the excommunication of Photius in A.D. 863 by Pope
Nicholas and Photius excommunicated the Pope in A.D. 867. In Leo’s
pontificate, Greek and Latin Churches were finally divorced (1054). The
excommunication was removed in 1965, when patriarch Athenagoras visited the
Pope in Rome. There was a follow up to their earlier visit (1964) in
Jerusalem, the first meeting in 500 years.
there was communication problem created by differences in language, liturgy and
doctrines. Greek Liturgy, ecclesiastical vestments, vessels and ornaments
were more complex, ornate and artistically wrought than those of the West; the
Greek cross had equal arms; the Greeks prayed standing, the Latin kneeling; the
Greek baptised by immersion, the Latin by aspersion and/or immersion; marriage
was forbidden to Latin priests but permitted to Greek priests; Latin priests
shaved, Greek priests had contemplative beards. These differences and many
other disagreements led to the excommunication of Photius in A.D. 863 by Pope
Nicholas and Photius excommunicated the Pope in A.D. 867. In Leo’s
pontificate, Greek and Latin Churches were finally divorced (1054). The
excommunication was removed in 1965, when patriarch Athenagoras visited the
Pope in Rome. There was a follow up to their earlier visit (1964) in
Jerusalem, the first meeting in 500 years.
In
1300 the papacy suffered two major setbacks: The era of “antipopes” and the
“Babylonian Captivity”. In 1305 through influence of king Philip of
France, a French Archbishop was elected and crowned at Lyon, as Pope Clement V.
Clement moved the papal court from Rome to Avigon in 1309. The papacy
remained in France during the reign of seven Popes and this greatly reduced the
prestige of the Papacy. This period was known as “Babylonian Captivity”;
it ended in 1377 when Pope Gregory XI returned the Papal throne to Rome.
1300 the papacy suffered two major setbacks: The era of “antipopes” and the
“Babylonian Captivity”. In 1305 through influence of king Philip of
France, a French Archbishop was elected and crowned at Lyon, as Pope Clement V.
Clement moved the papal court from Rome to Avigon in 1309. The papacy
remained in France during the reign of seven Popes and this greatly reduced the
prestige of the Papacy. This period was known as “Babylonian Captivity”;
it ended in 1377 when Pope Gregory XI returned the Papal throne to Rome.
This
development made the Papacy to be a subject of intense rivalry among Catholic
countries. Unfortunately, it degenerated into the era of rival Popes, in
other words, known as “anti-popes.” An anti-pope was he, who has been
improperly elected a pope. He sets himself in opposition to the pope, who
has been regularly chosen in accordance with canon law. The first
anti-pope usually noted was Hippolytus; the last anti-pope was Felix.
This schism divided the church for almost 60 years. As if the Church was
recovering from it; subsequent popes posed a problem to the Church.
Having obtained their election by bribe, they lived shamefully.
development made the Papacy to be a subject of intense rivalry among Catholic
countries. Unfortunately, it degenerated into the era of rival Popes, in
other words, known as “anti-popes.” An anti-pope was he, who has been
improperly elected a pope. He sets himself in opposition to the pope, who
has been regularly chosen in accordance with canon law. The first
anti-pope usually noted was Hippolytus; the last anti-pope was Felix.
This schism divided the church for almost 60 years. As if the Church was
recovering from it; subsequent popes posed a problem to the Church.
Having obtained their election by bribe, they lived shamefully.
This
was exemplified in the pontificate of Alexander VI. Alexander involved
himself in the political maneuvering, which characterised Italy of
1492-1503. The career of Alexander VI and some other Popes of the era
demonstrated that they were typical Renaissance Princes occupied with Italian
politics often to the neglect of their spiritual duties, thus bringing disgrace
to the Church and the Papacy into disrepute.
was exemplified in the pontificate of Alexander VI. Alexander involved
himself in the political maneuvering, which characterised Italy of
1492-1503. The career of Alexander VI and some other Popes of the era
demonstrated that they were typical Renaissance Princes occupied with Italian
politics often to the neglect of their spiritual duties, thus bringing disgrace
to the Church and the Papacy into disrepute.
As an
aftermath of this degenerative Papacy, many Church leaders cried out for
reforms. These cries continued unheeded until Martin Luther came
forth. Though Erasmus was accused of having laid the egg that Luther
hatched but he was more civilised as opposed to the rudeness of Luther. Luther
was a Catholic Priest and a monk. In his 95 theses, he denounced many
things in the Church, especially the indulgence. But let it be said here
that even before Luther, Pope Boniface IX in 1392, Martin V in 1420 and Sixtus
IV in 1478 had repeatedly condemned the misconception and abuses of
indulgence. Luther’s concerns were legitimate. Some believed that
his way of going about it was wrong, others believed otherwise. This
debate continues.
aftermath of this degenerative Papacy, many Church leaders cried out for
reforms. These cries continued unheeded until Martin Luther came
forth. Though Erasmus was accused of having laid the egg that Luther
hatched but he was more civilised as opposed to the rudeness of Luther. Luther
was a Catholic Priest and a monk. In his 95 theses, he denounced many
things in the Church, especially the indulgence. But let it be said here
that even before Luther, Pope Boniface IX in 1392, Martin V in 1420 and Sixtus
IV in 1478 had repeatedly condemned the misconception and abuses of
indulgence. Luther’s concerns were legitimate. Some believed that
his way of going about it was wrong, others believed otherwise. This
debate continues.
In
response to this protestant reformation, the Church called the Council of
Trent, which met from 1545-1563. This Council re-affirmed the Catholic
doctrines.
response to this protestant reformation, the Church called the Council of
Trent, which met from 1545-1563. This Council re-affirmed the Catholic
doctrines.
It
needs to be said and I do hereby say it that the personal immoralities of
priests or popes do not nullify the divine character of the Church, the purity
of its doctrines or the graces and spiritual powers it transmits.
needs to be said and I do hereby say it that the personal immoralities of
priests or popes do not nullify the divine character of the Church, the purity
of its doctrines or the graces and spiritual powers it transmits.
The
final major offensive against the papacy was the madness of Napoleon
Bonaparte. He forcefully annexed the Papal States in 1809. The
Congress of Vienna restored this in 1815 under the protection of Austria.
During the struggle for unification in Italy, all the papal provinces were
confiscated but in 1929 the Vatican City was granted independence: this ushered
in the era of the modern papacy.
final major offensive against the papacy was the madness of Napoleon
Bonaparte. He forcefully annexed the Papal States in 1809. The
Congress of Vienna restored this in 1815 under the protection of Austria.
During the struggle for unification in Italy, all the papal provinces were
confiscated but in 1929 the Vatican City was granted independence: this ushered
in the era of the modern papacy.
The contemporary Papacy
In
the 1900’s, the papacy enjoyed a high prestige and influence. With the
independence of the Vatican, the popes concern themselves with moral and social
issues of the day. Pius X, who became Pope in 1903, worked hard to keep
peace in Europe. He was shocked by the outbreak of World War II in 1914.
the 1900’s, the papacy enjoyed a high prestige and influence. With the
independence of the Vatican, the popes concern themselves with moral and social
issues of the day. Pius X, who became Pope in 1903, worked hard to keep
peace in Europe. He was shocked by the outbreak of World War II in 1914.
Like
Pius X, Pius XII, who succeeded him, worked tirelessly for peace during the
World War II; this brought him worldwide acclaim. Pope John XXIII, known
as the “rotund” Pope, succeeded him in 1958 and called the Second Vatican
Council, which began in 1962. This is the 21st council in the history of
Christianity. This Council made changes in the Church and was completed
under Pope Paul VI, who succeeded him in 1966.
Pius X, Pius XII, who succeeded him, worked tirelessly for peace during the
World War II; this brought him worldwide acclaim. Pope John XXIII, known
as the “rotund” Pope, succeeded him in 1958 and called the Second Vatican
Council, which began in 1962. This is the 21st council in the history of
Christianity. This Council made changes in the Church and was completed
under Pope Paul VI, who succeeded him in 1966.
Paul
travelled widely. He was the first Pope to visit the Holy land, the U.S.
and South America. In 1978, he died and Pope Paul I succeeded him.
After 34 days, he died and Pope John Paul II succeeded him. A year of
three Popes!
travelled widely. He was the first Pope to visit the Holy land, the U.S.
and South America. In 1978, he died and Pope Paul I succeeded him.
After 34 days, he died and Pope John Paul II succeeded him. A year of
three Popes!
We
must not refuse this Pope the credit of having brought the Church to her
greatest height and had never relented in his task of realisation of a moral
state. He was one of the ablest Church leaders in Church history. He
pursued his aims with vision, devotion, inflexible persistence and unbelievable
energy.
must not refuse this Pope the credit of having brought the Church to her
greatest height and had never relented in his task of realisation of a moral
state. He was one of the ablest Church leaders in Church history. He
pursued his aims with vision, devotion, inflexible persistence and unbelievable
energy.
The
Pope gave himself so unremittingly to the problems of humanity that he looked
physically exhausted, weighed down by the suffering of humanity. He waged
war against abortion, euthanasia and oppression with unquestionable
sincerity and heroic devotion. He was called a mobile Pope because he
travelled widely as part of evangelisation with his message of love, reconciliation,
charity and peace. These, among other things, made him the most cherished
visitor wherever he visited. The Pope had some physical comeliness and
spiritual magnetism that attracted millions of people wherever he visited. He
remained a spiritual lion even until he died on April 2, 2005, mildly like a
ripe pawpaw from its tree.
Pope gave himself so unremittingly to the problems of humanity that he looked
physically exhausted, weighed down by the suffering of humanity. He waged
war against abortion, euthanasia and oppression with unquestionable
sincerity and heroic devotion. He was called a mobile Pope because he
travelled widely as part of evangelisation with his message of love, reconciliation,
charity and peace. These, among other things, made him the most cherished
visitor wherever he visited. The Pope had some physical comeliness and
spiritual magnetism that attracted millions of people wherever he visited. He
remained a spiritual lion even until he died on April 2, 2005, mildly like a
ripe pawpaw from its tree.
Contemplating
his achievements, we marvel at the prestige he brought to the papacy, Catholic
Church and Christianity. He renewed our faith in the future possibilities
of the Church as indispensable to the moral health of humanity. We can
always call him, without tongue-in-check, the very representative of
Christ. It is a challenge to the Catholic Church to keep on producing
Popes like him in future, thank God that the present Pope, Pope Benedict XVI,
is leading the Church along the parts of holiness.
his achievements, we marvel at the prestige he brought to the papacy, Catholic
Church and Christianity. He renewed our faith in the future possibilities
of the Church as indispensable to the moral health of humanity. We can
always call him, without tongue-in-check, the very representative of
Christ. It is a challenge to the Catholic Church to keep on producing
Popes like him in future, thank God that the present Pope, Pope Benedict XVI,
is leading the Church along the parts of holiness.
Watching
the actions of Pope Benedict XVI, one noticed that he is not after personal
glory. He does his job as the Representative of Christ. In his apostolate, he
keeps making reference to the work of his predecessor without any tinge of
jealousness.
the actions of Pope Benedict XVI, one noticed that he is not after personal
glory. He does his job as the Representative of Christ. In his apostolate, he
keeps making reference to the work of his predecessor without any tinge of
jealousness.
Presently,
there appears to be organised war against the Catholic Church and we are happy
the manner the present Pope has handles it. The war is hinged on clerical
celibacy, ordination of women, same-sex marriage, abortion and many other
contentious issues. If the Church is truth, it would have to maintain the
teachings of God and not swing with the changing times. The moment the
Church starts saying because majority of the people are clamouring for this or
that, let us change the divine truth, it will do more harm to her.
there appears to be organised war against the Catholic Church and we are happy
the manner the present Pope has handles it. The war is hinged on clerical
celibacy, ordination of women, same-sex marriage, abortion and many other
contentious issues. If the Church is truth, it would have to maintain the
teachings of God and not swing with the changing times. The moment the
Church starts saying because majority of the people are clamouring for this or
that, let us change the divine truth, it will do more harm to her.
Expectedly
form today, till February 28, when the Pope’s resignation will take effect, we
shall witness a lot. the See of the Basilica of St. John Lateran, which is the
Cathedral Church of the Bishop of Rome (Pope) will be declared vacant (Sede
Vacante).
form today, till February 28, when the Pope’s resignation will take effect, we
shall witness a lot. the See of the Basilica of St. John Lateran, which is the
Cathedral Church of the Bishop of Rome (Pope) will be declared vacant (Sede
Vacante).
Normally,
with the death of the Pope, all heads of Roman Curia resign except Cardinal
Camerlengo and Major Penitentiary. Will it apply in this case? Will the Coat of
Arms of the Holy See change form from the normal Papal tiara to Umbraculum?
These questions will soon be answered.
with the death of the Pope, all heads of Roman Curia resign except Cardinal
Camerlengo and Major Penitentiary. Will it apply in this case? Will the Coat of
Arms of the Holy See change form from the normal Papal tiara to Umbraculum?
These questions will soon be answered.
•Valentine Obienyem
wrote from Awka
